JoLee’s Korean Language Study Aide
October 19, 2004
I. GENERAL GRAMMAR CONCEPTS
A. GENERAL GRAMMAR CONCEPTS:
1. Basic Types of Sentences:
a. The Basic Sentence Pattern: Noun 이/가 Noun 에서 (Noun ㅇ,ㄹ/를) ~어요/아요. [B1 G4.8]
Korean: subject-object-verb English: subject-verb-object
| 영미가 | 교실에서 | 한국어를 | 공부해요. |
| Young Mi | in the classroom | Korean | study. |
b. Equational Expressions: [B1 G1.1]
i. (Noun-1 = Noun-2)
· Polite Style: (Noun-1 은/는) Noun-2 이에요/예요.
| | Professor Min Soo Lee is Korean. |
| 조는 | I am |
| 이민수예요. | I am Min Soo Lee. |
· Deferential Style: (Noun-1 은/는) Noun-2 입니다/~ㅂ니다.
| 조는 한국 사람입니다. | I am Korean. |
| | I am Min Soo Lee. |
| | I am Young Mi Kim. |
ii. (Noun-1 ≠ Noun-2).
· (Noun-1 은/는) Noun-2 (이/가) 아니에요.
| 조는 한국 사람(이) 아니에요. | I am not Korean. |
| 조는 이민수(가) 아니에요. | I am not Min Soo Lee. |
c. Yes-or-No Questions: [B1 G1.4]
i. In English, a question involves special grammar. Namely a verb (either “do” or “be” is put in front of the subject as in “Are you Korean?”. In Korean, however, only the intonation changes and no special grammar is needed – at least in the polite and intimate speech styles. The word order remains the same and the same verbal ending is used for both questions and statements. (This is not true for deferential/honorific questions which have a special verb ending).
· Noun 이 에요/예?
ii. Answering yes/no questions involves affirmation or denial of the content of the question.
· 네/아니오, Noun 이에요/예요.
| 영미, 한국 학생이에요? | Young Mi, are you are Korean student? |
| 네, 한국학생이에요. | Yes, I am a Korean student. |
| 삼학년이에요? | [Young Mi] Are you a Junior? |
| 아니오, 일학년이에요. | No, I am a Freshman. |
a. Alternative Questions: [B1 G3.3]
Alternative questions are used to ask someone to choose one from the given choices.
| 남동생이에요? 여동생이에요? | Is your younger sibling male or female? |
| 중국 사람이에요? 한국 사람이에요? | Are you Chinese or Korean? |
2. Omission of Redundant Elements: [B1 G1.2]
a. In Korean, subjects are often omitted when they are obvious.
| 안녕하세요? | How are [you]? |
| 김영미예요. | [I] am Young Mi Kim. |
b. Omissions are not limited to subjects. Any element can be omitted as long as the context makes the referent clear.
| 처음 뵙겠습니다. | It is the first time [I] meet [you]. |
| 이름이 뭐예요? | What is [your] name? |
3. Using a Title or Name Instead of “you”: [B1 G1.5]
English has a rich pronoun system with a full range of pronouns: I (my, me, mine), you (yours, your), he (him, his), she (her, hers), it (its), we (us, ours, our), they (them, their, theirs), etc. Korean has some personal pronouns, too, such as “저/나“(I), but the range of pronominal expressions is much narrower than in English and the usage is very limited. In referring to the listener which is “you” in English, pronouns are rarely used and names and titles are used instead.
4. Possession:
a. Use of 있다/없다 to Express Possession: [B1 G3.1]
i. 있다 refers to either the existence or the possession of an object or person.
ii. When honorific form is used, two different words are used:
| | Existence | Possession |
| Non-Honorific | 있어요 | |
| Honorific | 계세요 | 있으세요 |
| 한국어 사전 있어요? | Do you have a Korean dictionary? |
| 집에 있어요. | It’s at home. |
| 부모님은 하와이에 계세요. | My parents are in |
| 선생님, 시간이 있으세요? | Do you have a minute, professor? |
b. Expressing Possessive Relations: Noun-1(possessor) Noun-2(possessed)/의: [B1 G3.2]
i. Possession involves two parts, the possessor and the possessed. The most common way of expressing the possessive relation is to place them side by side:
| 마이클 책 | Michael’s book |
| 학생 이름 | The student’s name |
| 우리 아버지 | Our father |
ii. The possessive particle 의 (pronounced [에]), comparable to the English preposition “of” may be used sometimes, but not usually in conversation, except for limited contexts when both the possessor and the possessed are abstract concepts:
| 미국의 대통령 | The president of the |
| 영국의 수도 | The capital of |
| 오늘의 뉴스 | The news of the day |
iii. The possessive pronouns 내,제, and 누구(의) are formed by combining the regular pronoun with the particle . Sometimes contractions occur.
iv. When the possessed object is obvious from the preceding context, 가/것 which means “thing” can be substituted for it. When 가is combined with possessive pronouns, it creates the equivalent of English mine, ours, yours, his, hers, and theirs; 내거, 제거, 우리 거.
5. Negation:
a. The Negative Adverb ~안: [B1 G5.6]
i. Negation of a predicate in general is made by putting the negative adverb ~안 immediately before the predicate.
| Positive | Negative |
| 가요 | 안 가요 |
| 먹어요 | 안 먹어요 |
ii. Negation of noun + 하다 verbs is usually made by putting ~안 between the noun and the verb 하다, that is [noun] 안 하다.
| Positive | Negative |
| 공부해요 | 공부 안 해요 |
| 전화해요 | 전화 안 해요 |
iii. Some verbs and adjectives have a special negative counterpart. For those predicates, the regular negative construction with ~안 is not used.
| Positive | Negative |
| 있다/있어요 | 없다/없어요 |
| N이다/이에요 | N(이/가) 아니다/아니에요 |
| 알다/알아요 | 모르다/몰라요 |
b. Negation:못: [B1 G6.5]
Where ~안 is used for general negation, you need to use못 if its because external circumstances prevent a person from doing something. 못 can only be used with a subject with its own volition.
| 숙제 못 했어요. | I couldn’t do my homework. |
| 아니오, 자주 못 해요. | No, I can’t call often. |
c. Negative Questions: [B1 G6.6]
In English, yes or no mean positive or negative realization of the events or states of affairs at issue, respectively, regardless of whether the question is asked positively or negatively. In Korean, however, 네/아니오 refers to whether the content of the question is true or false (the responder agrees or disagrees with it) respectively. Therefore when a question is asked negatively, 네 means that the content of the question is true (responder agrees),and아니오 means the content of the question is false) responder disagrees.
| 언니한테 전화 자주 안 하세요? 네, 자주 못 해요. | You don’t call your older sister often? That’s right, I can’t call often. |
| 꽃은 안 받았어요? 아니오, 꽃도 받았어요. | You didn’t receive flowers? No, I received flowers as well. |
1. Demonstrative Expressions: 이/그/저and 여기/거기/저기: [B1 G7.4]
a. 이, 그, and 저 indicate the physical or mental proximity of an item relative to the speaker and the listener and are used to refer to something in terms of its position in relation to that of the speaker and the listener.
i. 이 “this” (near speaker)
ii. 그 “that” (near listener)
iii. 저 “that over there” (away from both speaker and listener.
b. 이, 그, and 저 are always followed by a noun. When a thing is mentioned again in the same conversation, there is no need to repeat the noun, which can be replaced with 것/거 which means “thing” and is always preceded by a modifier as in이것, 그것, and 저것. Note that것 is often shortened to거 in casual speech and further contraction is made when the following particle begins with a vowel.
c. For places, 여기, 거기, or 저기 is used, where이, 그, and 저 are built into those expressions corresponding to “here”, “there” and “over there” respectively. 여기, 거기, or 저기 can be both pronouns and adverbs of place. The locative particle 에 is often omitted but other particles should remain, as in여기(에)서, 거기(에)서, or 저기(에)서.
2. Direction ~ (으)로: [B1 G7.6]
a. Recall in [B1 G5.3] that ~(으)로 can be used as means or instrument, “by means of”, and as direction/toward/to a place and indicates a choice made from several possibilities.
b. 에 and (으)로 is used to indicate a specific destination whereas (으)로 is used to indicate a general direction.
| 이번 여름 방학에 서울에 갑니다. | I am going to |
| 이번 여름 방학에 서울로 갑니다. | I am going to |
| 오른쪽으로 도세요. | Turn to the right. |
3. The Adverbial Form ~게: [B2 G12.7]
The adverbial form ~게 refers to the manner or way in which something happens. ~게 is usually added to an adjective stem.
| 저녁을 아주 맛있게 먹었어요. | I enjoyed the dinner very much. |
| 크리스마스를 즐겁게 보내세요. | Have a merry Christmas (literally, spend Christmas enjoyably). |
4. Listing Actions: Noun 도Verb Stem ~고 Noun 도 Verb Stem ~고: [B2 G13.4]
In enumerating several possibilities, the particle 도 is added to each noun or noun + particle, the connective suffix ~고 is attached to each verb stem, and the verb 하다 or 그러다 (‘to do so’) is used as the main verb. If ~고 하다/그러다 is not used, the sentence usually contains an exhaustive listing, rather than just a few possibilities among many.
| 산에도 가고 바닷가에도 가고 그래요. | [In response to the question, what do you do on the weekends?]: I go to the mountains, (go to) the beach, and so on. |
B. PARTICLES:
1. The Subject Particle 이/가: [B1 G2.4]
a. Indicates that the word attached is the subject of the sentence; i.e. what the predicate is about.
| 이름이 뭐예요? | What is your name? |
| 학교 식당이 어디 있어요? | Where is the dorm cafeteria? |
b. It usually but not always marks the subject.
| 샌디 왕은 한국 사람이 아니에요. | Sandy Wong is not Korean. |
2. 은/는:
a. The Topic Particle: [B1 G1.1]
i. Indicates that the attached noun is the topic described by the subsequent statement.
| | Professor Min Soo Lee is Korean. |
| 조는 | I am |
b. The Discourse Particle (Changing the Topic) 은/는: [B1 G2.6]
은/는 can also be used to shift the topic from one item to another so that the speaker signals she is now going on to something different.
c. Comparing Items은/는 vs. 도, and 만: [B1 G1.3] [B1 G3.4]
i. The particle은/는 compares two or more different or contrastive items.
| 김영미: 저는 김영미예요. 저는 일학년이에요. | I am I am Young Mi Kim. I am a Freshman. |
ii. The particle도 compares two or more parallel items.
| 린다: 린다예요. 저도 일학년이에요. | I am Linda. I am also a Freshman. |
iii. The particle만 is a marker of exclusivity, “only”.
| 언니만 있어요. | I only have an older sister. |
3. The Object Particle을/를: [B1 G3.6]
Marks the object of the verb. In the basic sentence pattern: N이/가 N을/를 ~어요/아요. the subjects designate the actors, the ones who do the action described by the verb, and the objects designate the things that the actors do something to.
| Subject | Object | Verb |
| 린다가 | 아침을 | 먹어요. |
| 영미가 | 텔레비전을 | 봐요. |
| 생디가 | 커피를 | 마셔요. |
| 스티브가 | 친구를 | 만나요. |
4. ~에:
a. As Locative Particles; 에 and 에서: [B1 G4.1]
i. Reference to a Location: [Place]에 있어요: [B1 G2.5]
· Reference to a location requires three elements:
° A location
° A locative particle (에)
° A verb of existence (있어요) - [Cannot use ~이다/이에요]
| Object | Location | Locative Particle | Verb of Existence |
| 학교 식당은 | 유니온 빌딩 | 에 | 있어요. |
| 서울대학은 | 서울 | 에 | 있어요. |
· Sometimes a reference to a location needs to be further specified with a “position”
| Object | Location | Locative Particle | Verb of Existence | |
| Object Location | Relative Position | |||
| 유니온 빌딩 | 우체국 | 앞 | 에 | 있어요. |
| 학교 식당은 | 유니온 빌딩 | 안 | 에 | 있어요. |
· When referring to a dynamic location, where an action or activity is taking place, use에서.
ii. Three general uses in this context:
· 에 (“at/in”) is used to indicate a static location and the simple existence of an object.
· 에 (“to”) can also be used to indicate a destination or a goal, typically for directional verbs such as 가다/오다 -- where the person or object ends up being in that location.
· 에 (“at/on/in”) can also be used to indicate a general concept of time.
b. As “for/per” ~에: [B2 G12.4]
에 can also mean (“per/for”).
| 한 상자에 이만 원입니다. | It’s 20,000 won for a box. |
| 일주일에 학교에 몇 번 오세요? | How many times per week do you come to school? |
5. Omission of Particles: [B1 G3.7]
Nominals (nouns, pronouns, numerals, etc.) may be marked with a particle. In conversation, however, nominals are frequently not marked with any particle. When the purpose is to report who does what to whom and when, where, and how in precise terms, the particle usually is needed. In conversation, a particle is necessary when the speaker wants to focus on a specific element the speaker assumes the listener is not thinking of.
C. CONJUNCTIONS:
1. “And” 그리고: [B1 G2.7]
a. “And”. Is the beginning of the second sentence and connects the two concepts.
| 뉴욕 대학은 커요. 그리고 학생이 많아요. | |
| 학교 식당은 싸요. 그리고 커피가 맛있어요. | The school cafeteria is inexpensive. And it has delicious coffee. |
2. Joining Nouns: Noun-1 하고 Noun-2 = “Noun-1 and Noun-2”: [B1 G3.5]
The particle하고 like “and” in English, is attached to a noun expression and joins it to another noun expression. This particle is usually used in colloquial speech and informal writing.
3. “Clause 1 and Clause 2” ~고: [B1 G7.5]
a. ~고 is used to link two clauses like “and” in English. (compare to 하고, which links two nouns). ~고 indicates that the event or state of clause 1 coexists with that of clause 2. Note that clause 1 is usually not marked with any tense, especially when it is interpreted as being within the same time frame as clause 2. (compare, when using the conjunction그리고, both sentences must be marked for tense).
| 우리 아파트는 조용하고 깨끗해요. | My apartment is quiet and clean. |
b. The two events or states in clause 1 and clause 2 may stand in contrast to one another.
| 스티브는 아파트에 살고 마크는 기숙사에 살아요. | Steve lives in an apartment and Mark lives in the dorm. |
c. ~고can also be used to indicate a sequence of actions or events, and the past tense is expressed only in the final verb.
| 점심을 먹고 기숙사에 갔어요. | I had lunch and then went to the dorm. |
d. ~고 can be used more than once in a sentence.
a. N하고 “with N”
b. N하고 (같이) “(together) with N”
c. In describing joint activities, 같이 is optional. When discussing reciprocal activities such as 전화하다(to make a phone call), do not use같이.
| 제인하고 전화해요. | I’m talking on the phone with Jane. |
| 샌디하고 (같이) 공부해요. | I’m studying (together) with |
2. Changing the Topic of Conversation: 그런데: [B1 G4.6]
그런데 (“by the way”) is used when the speaker shifts from one topic to another.
| 네, 재미있어요. 그런데 학기에 몇 과목 들어요? | Yeah, its fun. By the way, how many courses are you taking? |
3. “So, therefore”: 그래서: [B1 G5.4]
그래서(so, therefore) Indicates a cause-effect relation between the two sentences.
| 오후에는 수업이 없어요. 그래서 린다하고 테니스쳐요. | I don’t have classes in the afternoon. So, therefore Linda and I play tennis. |
4. Background information: 는데/(으)ㄴ데: [B2 G8.1] [B2 G8.2]
a. The main function of ~는데/(으)ㄴ데 is to provide background information about the situation in the main clause. The pattern ~는데/(으)ㄴ데 can be used in the following contexts:
i. To give common background to be shared between a speaker and a listener
| 버스를 기다리는데 버스가 안 와요.. | I am waiting for the bus, but it isn’t coming. |
ii. To contrast two clauses
| 옷이 예쁜데, 너무 비싸요. | The clothes are pretty, but they are too expensive. |
iii. To justify a request or proposal
| 시간이 없는데 택시를 타세요. | I didn’t have time so I took a taxi. |
b. ~는데/(으)ㄴ데 alternate as follows:
i. Verb Stem + ~는데
| Dictionary Form | Non-Past | Past |
| 가다 | 가는데 | 갔는데 |
| 먹다 | 먹는데 | 먹었는데 |
| 마시다 | 마시는데 | 마셨는데 |
| 알다 | 아는데 | 알았는데 |
| 듣다 | 듣는데 | 듣었는데 |
| 닫다 | 닫는데 | 닫았는데 |
ii. Adjective Stem + ~(으)ㄴ데
| Dictionary Form | Non-Past | Past |
| 예쁘다 | 예쁜데 | 예뻤는데 |
| 좋다 | 좋은데 | 좋았는데 |
| 멀다 | 먼데 | 멀었는데 |
| 춥다 | 추운데 | 추웠는데 |
iii. Copula Stem + ~ㄴ데
· The copula N~이다, N~아니다 (treat same as adjective stem).
| Dictionary Form | Non-Past | Past |
| 힉생이다 | 힉생인데 | 힉생이었는데 |
| 교수이다 | 교수인데 | 교수였는데 |
| 학생(이) 아니다 | 학생(이) 아닌데 | 학생(이) 아니었는데 |
iv. 있/업 + ~는데 (same as verbs)
| Dictionary Form | Non-Past | Past |
| 있다 | 있는데 | 있었는데 |
| 없다 | 없는데 | 없었는데 |
v. Any Stem + ~았/었 + ~는데
· Note that in the past tense, ~았/었 occurs before the form ~는데
5. Pre-requisite sequential: ~어서/아서: [B2 G10.3] [B2 G8.6]
The suffix ~어서/아서 connects two clauses. It has two main functions; to provide a cause and effect relationship between two events and to state actions or events in a chronological sequence.
a. Cause-and-Effect
i. The pattern [clause 1~어서/아서 + clause 2] is used to give a cause or reason for the event described in clause 2. Because [clause 1~어서/아서] expresses a reason or a cause, it is often used in response to the question 왜 (why). Note that there is a close temporal relation between the events in the two clauses; in the following example, one would not go to the hospital (clause 2) if clause 1 (having a stomachache) had not happened first.
| A: 어제 왜 병원에 갔어요? B: 배가 아파서 갔어요. | A: Why did you go to the hospital yesterday? B: I went because I had a stomachache. |
ii. ~어서/아서 never takes a tense marker in the first clause. For example, unlike English, the past-tense suffix cannot occur in the first clause even though the main (second clause) tense is past, as in배가 아파서 갔어요 (I had a stomachache and so I went) or 차 사고가 나서 늦었어요 (A car accident occurred and so I was late).
iii. The main clause (clause 2) may be omitted if the context makes it clear to the listener what was omitted. The polite ending 요 should be attached to maintain the polite speech level.
| A: 어제 왜 병원에 갔어요? B: 갑자기 배가 아파서요. | A: Why did you go to the hospital yesterday? B: Because suddenly my stomach hurt. |
b. Chronological sequence
i. ~어서/아서 “and then” can be used to link two sequential, tightly related events that do not have a cause-and-effect relationship between them.
ii. No ~어서/아서 can have a past tense form of the verb. The subjects of the clauses connected by the sequential ~어서/아서 must be the same, whereas for the causal ~어서/아서, the subjects can be different.
iii. 하다 + ~어서/아서 becomes 해서.
| 날씨가 좋아서 유리는 바닷가에 놀러 갔어요. | The weather was good, (and) so we went to the beach to play. |
iv. Compare ~어서/아서 to ~고. Both indicate a sequence of events. The difference is that ~어서/아서 connects two sequential events, with the second event always a result of the first. Even when the first event doesn’t cause the second, it is a precondition for the second event. In contrast, the basic meaning of ~고 is simply to list two or more events, and there is no implication that the first event leads to the second.
| 친구를 만나서 영화를 보러 갔어요. | I met my friend and (then) we went to see a movie. |
| 친구를 만나고 영화를 보러 갔어요. | I met my friend, and I went to see a movie. |
c. The choice between ~어서 and ~아서 is determined by the same principle that determines the choice between ~어요and ~아요.
6. “But”: 그렇지만: [B2 G8.7]
그렇지만 is used to connect two sentences with opposing or contrasting meanings, as the English “but”. Compare그렇지만 with그리고 (and), 그런데 (by the way), 그래서(so, therefore), 그럼 (if so, then). While그런데 indicates a shift in focus, 그렇지만 shows a contrast between two situations.
| 한국어는 어렵습니다. 그렇지만 재미있습니다. | Korean is difficult. But it is fun. |
| 서울은 아주 복잡합니다. 그렇지만 신기한 일도 믾습니다. | |
7. 때문에: [B2 G11.3] [B2 G14.6]
a. “Because of”: 때문에 [B2 G11.3] The word 때문 means “reason”. It cannot be used by itself, but must be preceded by a noun or noun phrase. With a preceding noun and the particle 에, the construction [noun때문에] expresses a causal relationship like English “because of”. Note that after [noun 때문에] the main predicate may be omitted to avoid repetition.
| 지난 주에 빌린 책 때문에 전화했어요. | I called because of the book that I borrowed last week. |
| 한국어 수업때문에 좀 바빠요. | I’m a little busy because of Korean class. |
b. Reason: ~기 대문에 [B2 G14.6]
| 돈이 없기 때문에 책을 못 사요. | Because I don’t have money, I can’t buy books. |
i. While때문에 is preceded by a noun, the nominalizer ~기 is used with a verb or an adjective. ~기 때문에 “because” gives a reason, unlike ~어서/아서, which refers to a cause or developmental sequence. Neither ~기 때문에 or ~어서/아서 can be used with an imperative (do this) or a proposition (let’s do this).
ii. ~기 때문에 differs from ~어서/아서 in several respects:
· There is no temporal restriction on ~기 때문에, but ~어서/아서 requires that the first event precede the second.
· When two events have an inherently cause-and-effect relationship, ~어서/아서 is more natural.
· In scientific explanations, ~기 때문에 is used.
· ~기 때문에 is used with a tense marker, while ~어서/아서 cannot take a tense marker.
· When you make an excuse or apology, it is more appropriate to use ~어서/아서, which implies a situation beyond your control and thus inevitable.
· Expressions of gratitude use ~어서/아서, but not ~기 때문에.
8. “Cause”: Noun ~(이)라서[B2 G12.1]
a. The pattern [clause 1 ~(이)라서 + clause 2] is used to explain the cause of the event in clause 2. When ~어서/아서 occurs with [noun 이다] “to be” it becomes [noun ~(이)라서]. Note that [noun 이어서/여서] is acceptable in writing.
| 첫 학기라서 좀 바빴어요. | Because it was my first semester, it was a little busy. |
| 차가 막히는 시간이라서 오래 걸리겠는데요. | Because it is rush hour, I guess it will take a long time. |
b. The negative form of Noun ~(이)라서 is Noun ~(이/가) 아니라서.
| 학생이라서 | because someone is a student |
| 학생이 아니라서 | because someone is not a student |
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